Epictetus was a Stoic. What is a Stoic?
Stoicism was founded in the second century B.C. by Zeno; however, most of the credit for the development of Stoicism goes to Chrysippus and under his guidance Stoicism became the dominant philosophy of the post-classical era. The Roman historian Tacitus provides us a clear summary of the core principles of Stoic ethics as they were taught in Rome at that time. Tacitus writes: Whether human affairs are directed by Fate’s unalterable necessity, or by chance, is a question. The wisest philosophers disagree on this point. Epicureans insist that heaven is unconcerned with our birth and death — is unconcerned, in fact, with human beings generally — with the result that good people often suffer while wicked people thrive. The Stoics disagree, maintaining that although things happen according to fate, this depends not on the movement of the planets but on the principles and logic of natural causality. This school concedes to us the freedom to choose our own lives. Once the choice is made, however, the Stoics warn that the subsequent sequence of events cannot be altered. With regard to practical matters they maintain that popular ideas of good and bad are wrong: many people who appear to be in dire circumstances are actually happy provided they deal with their situation bravely; others, regardless of how many possessions they have, are miserable, because they do not know how to use the gifts of fortune wisely.
‘The Stoic school leaves us free to choose our own lives.’ Confidence in this capacity is a major belief for Epictetus. ‘Choice’ is fairly unique to Epictetus; most philosophies of his time believed in ‘Fate’ not ‘Choice.’ For Epictetus ‘Choice’ sets humans apart from the other animals.
For the Stoic, Epictetus, human minds frame propositions as statements, such as ‘that is a good thing to have’ or ‘this is the right thing to do.’ These propositions also require an intermediate step: they require our assent prior to our acting. Epictetus makes two points with an emphasis distinctly his own: (1) that humans [i.e. rational animals] can hold off acting on impressions until they are explored and assessed; and (2) if they are deemed to be unreasonable — irrational or impractical — humans can and should withhold affirming and/or acting on them. As Epictetus notes: ‘Don’t let the force of an impression when it first hits you knock you off your feet; just say to it, “Hold on a moment; let me see who you are and what you represent.” Let me put you to the test.’ These mindful functions define the realm of ‘Choice.’ The result is that we must choose how to act and that we are responsible for determining the character and content of our lives.
In Epictetus we find Stoics and others cited — Plato is praised, Diogenes the Cynic is quoted at length and it is Socrates who emerges again and again as the moral authority for Epictetus. Socrates was a philosophical saint and martyr, a model for those who wished to become Stoics and live by their principles. Socrates is often cited in support of the key tenets of Stoic morality: that no one does wrong but willingly; that harming others hurts the offender more; that material goods can do as much harm as good.
As a Stoic, Epictetus believed that our thoughts and actions have immediate and inescapable consequences [intended and un-]; ‘You have only to doze for a moment, and all is lost. For ruin and salvation both have their sources inside you.’ ‘Not even the gods,’ writes Epictetus, ‘have the power of coercion over us.’
Although the ‘Discourses’ are Stoic documents — and there are few Stoics around today — they continue to speak to us for they are rooted in common experience and common sense.
Epictetus influenced during his life-time and his influence has continued for almost two thousand years. With my next posting we will briefly explore Epictetus’ Influence.
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